The Changing Elements of Terrorism

In our previous article we looked at the unchanging core elements of terrorism. But we must not forget that terrorism is constantly evolving and transforming. This transformation shows itself across a wide range, from the aims of terrorism to its methods, from the choice of targets to its sources of finance. Technological advances and international political dynamics also drive this change by affecting terrorist groups’ strategies, means of communication and forms of cooperation. In this article we turn to this changing face of terrorism from a historical perspective, drawing also on Rapoport’s approach:

1. Aims and Motivation

Clear changes can be seen in the aims and motivations of terrorism over time. We can mention them briefly:

From the early twentieth century, terrorist acts generally centred on struggles for nationalism, freedom and independence.

During the Cold War, terrorism became a tool reflecting the ideological struggles of the great powers. Conflicts between left-wing and right-wing ideological groups turned into terrorist acts. In Italy, for example, the Red Brigades, and in Germany the RAF (Red Army Faction), carried out attacks in defence of left-wing ideologies.

From the 1990s onwards, organisations foregrounding religious extremism began to use terrorist acts as a tool. Al-Qaeda’s 9/11 attacks in 2001 are the most striking example of this period. Ethnic and sectarian conflicts also began to feature among the causes of terrorist acts.

More recently, terrorist acts have begun to be carried out with new motivations such as environmentalism, anti-globalisation and technological extremism. Some extreme environmentalist groups, for example, advocate protecting nature by attacking industrial plants and water treatment facilities.

Technological advances have allowed terrorist acts to spread on a global scale. This has made it possible for terrorist groups to reach or target wider audiences in pursuit of their aims. Posts on social media platforms, for example, help terrorist groups build a broader support base or advertise themselves.

2. Methods

The methods of terrorism have undergone a marked transformation over time and with technological developments.

In the past, terrorist acts were generally carried out through assassination, kidnapping, ransom demands and homemade bombs. These methods were often chosen because of the limited resources and technology available to terrorists.

Over time, terrorist groups turned to large-scale actions such as airport attacks and hijackings in order to gain more visibility on the international stage. The 1976 hostage crisis at Entebbe Airport is one of the notable events of this period.

From the late twentieth century onwards, suicide bombing became more widespread, and some groups sought to acquire and use chemical and biological weapons. Suicide attacks in particular became an effective and media-friendly method for terrorists. Many security personnel and civilians lost their lives in the suicide attacks the PKK terrorist organisation carried out on police stations and security posts in Turkey.  The 1995 sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway is also an important example showing terrorists’ capacity to use chemical weapons in this period.

Digital terrorism and cyberattacks are the new face of terrorism today. State-backed hacker groups in particular threaten national security by attacking critical infrastructure. Technological developments have increased terrorists’ capacity to change their methods. With the rise of digital platforms, new methods such as cyberattacks and doxing (exposing personal information) have emerged. A terrorist group cutting off a country’s energy supply through a cyberattack on power plants, for example, would be a serious illustration of how technology can change terrorism.

3. Choice of Targets

The aim of terrorism is generally to spread a particular message to large audiences and to trigger particular political, social or religious changes. In line with this aim, the targets terrorist organisations choose have also changed over time.

In the early twentieth century, the main targets of terrorist acts were generally political leaders or particular communities. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, for example, led to the outbreak of the First World War.

To attract more attention internationally, terrorist organisations over time began to target civilians and to attack places that would affect large communities. This was followed by the targeting of military and strategic sites. The 9/11 attacks are the clearest example showing that, besides civilians, financial and military centres were also targets for terrorists.

Today the choice of targets by terrorist organisations has become more varied and unpredictable than before. Both crowded places in big cities and communities in small, isolated areas are at risk. Digital infrastructure has also become a target for terrorists through cyberattacks.

With new methods, terrorists can now reach a wider range of targets. With the spread of cyberattacks, for example, critical infrastructure such as power plants, hospitals and the financial sector has become a terrorist target.

4. Sources of Finance

The financing of terrorism is critical for terrorist organisations to survive and to plan and carry out their actions. Terrorists’ sources of finance have also changed significantly over time.

From the beginning of the last century, terrorist groups’ funding generally came from local supporters, protection money extorted from the population and sometimes covert state sponsorship.

With the Cold War, some terrorist groups began to be supported directly or indirectly by one of the two superpowers. Income from illegal activities such as drug trafficking, arms smuggling and ransom demands also became an important source of finance for many terrorist groups, large and small.

With globalisation, technological advances and the internet age, the financing of terrorism became more complex. The emergence of cryptocurrencies gave terrorists new ways to try to hide their financial tracks (even though many of these transactions can be traced through public blockchain records). Some terrorist groups also generated income by selling natural resources in the areas they controlled.

Terrorist financing continues to diversify. Online donation campaigns, illegal trade on hidden networks and other illegal channels are used by terrorists as sources of income. The relative anonymity of cryptocurrencies has also become an important tool in terrorist financing.

5. Means of Communication

In the past, terrorist groups generally communicated face to face, by letter or by secret codes. Radio broadcasts were used as a propaganda tool by some groups. Over time the telephone and fax became more common. But these methods had the problem that they could be monitored or tapped. That is why secret messaging methods and codes remained the preferred means of communication.

The rise of the internet made it easier for terrorist groups to communicate both among themselves and with the masses. E-mails, forums and encrypted messaging services came to be used intensively by terrorist groups.

Today social media platforms, instant messaging apps and encrypted communication have become terrorists’ main means of communication. Encrypted messaging apps and the “dark web” in particular can allow terrorists to communicate without being monitored or detected.

The development of means of communication has enabled terrorists to choose targets across a wider geographical area. Encrypted communication in particular can help terrorists plan coordinated attacks on an international scale. Propaganda through social media can also enable terrorists to reach target audiences in particular regions or groups more effectively.

6. Rivalry and Alliances

The rivalries and alliances of terrorist organisations over time have varied depending on many factors. These include ideological conflicts, changes in the communities targeted, the variability of funding sources, changes of leadership and responses to international dynamics.

During the world wars in particular, terrorist organisations could act in ways that served the interests of states and the great ideological blocs. In this period state interests, rather than ideological rivalry, came first.

With the Cold War, terrorist groups were shaped as a result of the ideological rivalry between the Eastern and Western blocs. In this period the rivalries and alliances between terrorist groups depended largely on the interests and support of these two blocs.

With the end of the Cold War, ideologically based terrorist groups came even more to the fore. In this period there was intense rivalry between religiously motivated terrorist groups and secular or nationalist ones.

Today, with globalisation, shifts in the regional balance of power and technological advances, the structure of both rivalry and alliances between terrorist groups has changed. There has been rivalry, for both ideological and geographical reasons, between large terrorist groups such as ISIS and al-Qaeda in particular. At the same time, some local terrorist groups have tended to form alliances around common goals.

The rivalries and alliances of terrorist groups also directly affect their sources of finance. Rivalry between two terrorist groups operating in the same area, for example, can limit access to funding in that area. On the other hand, an alliance between two groups may also have the potential to share or pool funding sources.

In conclusion, the dynamics of rivalry and alliance in terrorism emerge as an important factor affecting terrorist groups’ activities, strategies and success.

7. Paths to Radicalisation

Radicalisation is closely tied to terrorism, and how and where it happens has changed over time. Until the mid-twentieth century, individuals generally radicalised through personal relationships, for example on university campuses or at political meetings. Members of the Red Army Faction in West Germany in the 1970s were radicalised this way.

Later, terrorist training camps in places such as Afghanistan and Pakistan became the centres of radicalisation. Al-Qaeda and many affiliated jihadist organisations are known to have trained in these camps.

From the early 2000s, technological change also transformed the nature of radicalisation. The internet and social media became the main platforms through which individuals were exposed to radical ideologies. ISIS in particular spread radicalisation by reaching large audiences through online platforms. The conflicts in Syria and Iraq also led individuals from different countries to radicalise on the battlefield.

Technological progress has given individuals faster access to radical ideologies, which in turn has created the potential for greater fear and panic in society.

8. Organisational Structures

The structures of terrorist organisations have changed greatly over time under the influence of tactics, technological developments, state interventions and global dynamics. These structural changes are a fundamental factor affecting the nature of terrorist acts.

In the last century, terrorist organisations generally operated with centralised structures. They had strict hierarchies and were closely bound by directives from the leadership.

Some organisations, however, operated with less centralised structures divided into local or regional cells. The IRA, for example, had autonomous cells operating in different areas.

In the twenty-first century, many terrorist organisations moved away from centralisation and adopted network-based structures. Some factions of ISIS and al-Qaeda adopted such structures and gave more priority to local initiative. In Western countries in particular, terrorist organisations began to activate local “sleeper” cells. These cells remained inactive until a particular time or order and then carried out sudden attacks, acting like a wound-up clock.

Today the flexibility of organisational structures is also increasing rivalry between terrorist groups. At the same time, this flexibility allows different terrorist groups to form strategic alliances. Terrorist organisations operating in different regions can thus carry out coordinated attacks on common targets.

9. Member Profile

The profile of terrorist organisations’ members has changed noticeably over time. These changes have led to changes both in the tactics and strategies of terrorist organisations and in the nature and impact of terrorist attacks.

In the early twentieth century, members of terrorist organisations generally acted for ideological or political reasons. The terrorist acts of anarchist movements in Europe, for example, belong to this period. In this period terrorists’ level of education was generally low or medium. Some terrorists acting for ideological reasons, however, could be highly educated.

From the 2000s onwards, especially with the spread of the internet, individuals’ radicalisation processes accelerated. Online forums, social media and websites with radical content gave individuals faster access to radical ideas.

Today the number of highly educated individuals among terrorists has increased compared with the past. Several of the terrorists who carried out the 9/11 attacks, for example, are known to have been highly educated.

Changes in member profiles have also directly affected changes in the paths to radicalisation. Technological advances have allowed individuals, though younger and from different socio-economic backgrounds, to access radical content easily and become radicalised.

In recent years there have frequently been reports of well-educated individuals living in Western countries joining terrorist organisations. Their online access to the propaganda material of terrorist organisations is cited as one reason for this trend.

In conclusion, we can say that the changing member profile of terrorist organisations, driven by historical, technological and social change, has become a factor affecting the nature and danger of terrorism.

*****

In our next article we will look at the concepts of state terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism.